By Morokoe Bopape| Throughout history, political and socio-economic domains have been dependent on the mode of production. The mode of production has influenced and changed the organization of politics and socio-economics and the areas they affect. The content of this essay is aimed to explain the consequences mode of production has on the political and socio-economic domains by mainly focusing on the effects of European industrialization and imperialism.

The mode of production consists of two aspects, first it is the means of production which consists of raw material, land, labour and capital and the second aspect is the relation of production which consists of the relationship between a person who owns the mode of production and the labourer. Industrialization gave way to the development of industries in the European region on a large scale. This gave way for societal changes within the European region and the United States region of organization. Political changes came about which included a wider development of voting rights and gave the government a new form of function which in this case be mass production. Social changes also came about where new family functions were introduced. Family activities or work moved from inside the family towards outside the family and this emphasized on the importance of science ad technology in the western intellectual life (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). The growing industrial economies of the west needed new markets and resources which could not be found domestically. Western technology alongside with its weapons gave an advantage towards western civilizations over other societies internationally. This gave motivations towards explorers of the western governments to search for new and secure markets and resources for raw materials by imperialism – which entails the extending the power of one’s region towards another by military force and other means – revolutionizing international relationships and increasing western dominance (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994).

Industrialization first started in Britain in the early 19th century and spread to other regions of Europe and later the United States. This entailed technological advancements such as the coal powered engines into the production process replacing people and animal labour. There are many factors which led to the industrial revolution such as new problems and ideas. Population pressure being one of the factors within Britain gave way towards advancements in social domains. The population growth went up by 150 percent between the 18th and 19th century (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). This immense growth could only be sustained with economic advancement. Other factors include the proclamation of faith and the need for humans to dominate nature towards their own will. Combined with the advantage gained from world commerce, Europe became a dominant figure within the international arena. The capital gained from international commerce fed industrialization and for it to happen in such a revolutionary manner creating new markets internationally for their mass-produced goods. Industrialization introduced a factory labour force which was separate from home. Increased specialization of labour was also a consequence of industrialization introducing more direct rules and discipline which changed the organization human labour. Britain was quickly in competition with other European countries as they started to copy industrialization. Industrialization moved people from the countryside to the city, distorting families in the process. The cities in which the people migrated to were in poor condition due to the overpopulation and the constant flux of people into them which later negatively affected health and sanitation conditions of the residents. New social divisions started to emerge where the middle-class wanted to move away from the city due to its poor conditions and crime being on the rise creating suburbanization in the process. Work was horrible for labourers due to the new direct rules and discipline that was introduced which restrained and reduced traditional values of leisuring and quality production (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). The introduction of new machines made factory owners to get labourers to work as much as possible to pay off for the machines, reducing recreational aspects of work such as singing and drinking in the process. In the social domain new business led city governments expanded their police forces to interrupt popular festivals, competitions and gambling due to new direct rules and discipline.

A redefinition of the middle-class came about where the family was starting to be an aspect which entails affection and purity, where children and women where to be protected from the harsh conditions of the new working environment. Women withdrew from formal employment and were given new roles to play in caring for children and taking care of the house. This mostly applied to women who were with partners and could afford to work at home. Education for children replaced work as a logical role which children should be involved in, in preparation for the business work environment. The importance of family increased because it gave hope and emotional satisfaction due to the changing labour dynamics and other community institutions such as taverns to replace their loss of power in the work environment (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994).

Industrialization began to align itself with political changes in forming new constitutional structures. Political change can be seen in the revolt of American colonies against Britain late in the 18th century. The new United States emerged in 1780s which made itself distant from Europe but followed a model of a republican regime. The American revolution inspired the French revolution which happened in 1789 which excluded the French monarchy from its constitution but included principles of religious freedom and equality by law (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). New political movements started to form and spread in Western Europe in the early 19th century where in some cases liberals demanded limitations on governmental interference in the citizens lives accompanied with constitutional parliamentary rule. The political instability in Europe was flamed by several factors such as the drastic economic changes which required new organisation in the commercial law and governmental functions. Citizens who progressed on economic innovations wanted to be heard in the political domains and on the other hand people who did not gain ground due to the economic changes also wanted to be heard within the political domains, trying to regain the security they had lost. In a response to the uncertainty the economic changes have brought the western European governments started to assist in the process of industrialization by changing laws to ease the movement of labour and new technologies. Most European governments started to follow a trend of promoting railroad development, technical exhibits and scientific training. Political instability spread throughout Europe where nationalist demands aligned with democratic pressure and unrest started to emerge from urban workers, this uprising failed to follow through as the conservative monarchs of Europe regained their grip on European governments (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). After the uprising many European and western leaders sought to decrease the need for political uprisings in the late 19th century. Liberals took into consideration that revolt was too much of a risk and were willing to compromise. Conservatives sought to develop a new political consensus which would have some aspects of the old regime, which included power for the monarch but in a manner, which would not provoke an uprising in the process. They allowed parliament but with limitations and would appeal to workers with limited social reforms in the process also promoting an active foreign policy in the interests of local stability (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). This furthered European powers and the United States by the late 19th century their republican party was attached with the identity of imperialist principles. An industrial organised state was promoted within the new political agenda. This increased governmental functions and employees within governments of the west, the introduction of civil service exams which promoted that applications would be accepted based on skill rather than connections and kin. The increased bureaucracy and employment gave way for governments to widen their regulations towards safety in work environments such as factories and transportation. Education became compulsory until the age of 12. In the United States the economy needed high school education and most western states expanded their public secondary education systems (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994).

The relationship between the government and citizens changed in which the government promoted literacy where up to 90 percent of western Europe adults were literate and certain social agendas were promoted such as in the domestic science programs being introduced to promoted national nutrition, hygiene and the use of doctors. The education systems promoted nationalism teaching the superiority of their nations language and history (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). Better welfare was introduced replacing traditional groups such as family in the process. The new governmental functions that were introduced required finance in which the western governments got from the profits of industrialization. Personal income taxes were introduced for further financing. Functions which were previously performed by family and community were now included within the new governmental functions due to them weakening in the process of industrialization. The rise of socialism was depended on the work of Karl Marx and other capitalist authors which saw capitalism as an evil. Their work emphasized on the unjustness of low wages and how workers were being exploited by their low wages, violent actions needed to be taken to rectify this unjustness within society. Support towards socialist parties grew as they allied themselves with other groups to be able to gain moderate reforms and with this process they became strong supporters of parliamentary democracy. Other movements also gained ground such as the feminist movements which demanded legal and economic gains for women such as equal opportunities to education, professions and the right to vote (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). Feminism mostly got its support from middle class women who argued that the moral superiority which they had at home should also be available in the political sphere. Middle class women also argued against their domestic roles which gained more voice when the average family size decreased. Small groups of women enters professional roles which challenged the ideas of patriarchy and a larger amount became teachers and nurses dominating semi- professional labour giving women a new role of work.

European countries sought to go overseas to find materials in which their own countries themselves could not produce and due to external threats, they were faced with enemies, trading in on the African continent and waging wars to have control in the Americas. They took land from the Americas in which they grew commercial crops such as sugar and coffee. In the conquest which European countries imposed on the Americas and Africa, missionaries from Roman Catholic areas saw the people of their conquest as heathens and wanted to convert them to Christianity. Wealth gained from goods taken and people that have been converted to Christianity was a strengthening of Christian Europe against Muslim Empires that were a threat on the South and East Michael (Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). The main products which Europeans got from European countries were raw materials such as metals, cotton and hemp which fed the European industrialized machines. Industrialization made Europe the manufacturing centre of the world and European industrialized products became a main focus for colonial expansion. Colonial expansion was fuelled by internal rivalries amongst European powers. They feared each other more than any external threats which they were faced with. Western and European powers had comparative advantage in manufacturing and war on other civilizations. This resulted in increased European interference in other civilizations and an unchallenged domination of western powers. Countries such as china which were not directly annexed by European powers were forcibly opened to European trade and investment which became areas of informal influence for European nations. Europe and North America gave capital and entrepreneurial talents and the rest of the world provided raw materials for European factories. Europeans gave themselves an identity of superiority of human kind, science and industrialization. Many of the European political leaders saw the obtaining of colonies as a power status which they desired to aspire to. European colonies were also seen as a surplus of raw materials in case of any shortages of raw materials and overseas market outlets for internal and external rivalries.

The British protection of overseas naval stations such as the one in South Africa can be linked with the increasing threat to their empire in India. This empire was not only their biggest passion and garrison but was a huge source of raw materials for British industrialization and a market for British manufactured goods and investments. It was impossible to distinguish political and economic interests, doing this would distort our understanding the intentions behind European imperialism. With the help of scientific discoveries and technological innovations, Europeans were ahead in warfare in comparison with their rivals. These scientific discoveries and technological innovations allowed the Europeans to dig up raw materials that other civilizations did not know were there. The mass production of light and mobile artillery pieces were made possible by advancement in metallurgy which was accompanied with the advancement of hand arms which were more advanced than any of the civilizations they faced. The development of railroads gave Europeans the ability to move large supplies to their armies for extended periods of time (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). Industrialization transformed mobility on the sea in which the sail was replaced by steam power and wood was replaced with iron hulls. Within their conquests Europeans sought to educate the African elite children in western languages. This made the colonized population in African countries to always be below European colonizers by instilling a western morality in which the taught would share it unto others.

European imperialism made European nations accustom to rapid territorial growth by military conquest and diplomacy n which by the beginning of the 19th century most of the world’s territory had already been taken. No more colonies were left to be taken, further imperialism would have led to direct conflict between European nations, but imperialism persisted due to Europeans eager for new gains and in fear of another country might gain at their cost. Foreign policy became tied to internal and external rivalries in which industrial European nations were facing labour unrest as strikes, trade unions and socialist voting increased by the 19th century making diplomacy an instrument of industrialization (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). A platform of war was created by diplomatic rivalries, social tensions amongst the western powers and stresses of previous industrialization phases. World war one can be seen as a prime example of a European conflict which was caused by diplomatic rivalries and tensions.

European dominance forced previously colonized civilizations to reappraise their own beliefs, institutions and traditions (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). This brought a new sense of nationalism and western political organization. The loss of European colonization came from within the European colonies as the rise of community came about which built between the educated middle class of the colonies. With their efforts to promote nationalist sentiments, it challenged the Europeans to conquer African and Asian lands and people. Violence was used in order to maintain order within these colonies, but it was more frequent in communities with settler population. The colonized population within Africa and Asia were heavily dependent on peace protests, economic boycotts and constitutional manoeuvres to achieve independence. Increasing conflict between the western societies also added unto their loss of their colonial rule. The British rule in India created social and economic disruptions which fuelled the rise of nationalism campaigns in India. The business leaders in India became vital financial support of the congress party who were fuelled by British nepotism of investors of making trade policies in India. The British taxes and tariffs which were placed on imported good to India were set low making British produced goods cheap and difficult for local Indian producers to compete with British companies. Indian nationalism campaigns stressed on this and terming it as a loss or drain of resources under colonial rule. The European economy controlled their policies that led the Indian peasantry to cash crops (cotton and indigo). Europe and North America had lost some of its influence within their colonized regions and they quickly had to go into a recovery phase where novel diplomacy was implemented giving the state a new domestic role. There was no denying that the west was now in a hostile climate where nationalism was on the rise. In order to ensure that the west maintains their influence they had to go to great lengths and costs. France tried to defend their colony in Vietnam against guerrilla attacks which only took place in 1954 after continuous defeats. The French hung unto Algeria which was its oldest African colony insisting a war to the death against Algerian nationalist forces which went on for years. Decolonization moved more swiftly between 1940 and 1970 because western nations did not want to drain themselves economically. They still kept cultural relations with their former colonies and provided administrative and military help who those who needed it.

Western economic interests were still in their former colonies such as Africa exploiting African resources for trade. There was no real difference in comparison to colonial their colonial years. The cold war between the United States and Soviet Union had an influence on political and socio-economic in the west where it took place between 1945 and 1947. At the end of the cold war Soviet Union troops occupied a majority of Eastern Europe installing communist regimes in order to exclude any oppositional movements. This pushed the Soviet Union boundaries more to the west moving the influence closer to the heart of Europe, in which the United States and Britain tried to prevent. The united acted in a vigour manner where they were sceptical of soviet polices and denied them of their applications for reconstruction loans. The United States introduced the Marshall plan in 1947. It provided loans to western nations in order for them to rebuild after the discourse of war. In the eyes of the soviets, the Marshall plan was an instrument for the United States economic dominance. Germany was the main fighting ground for the cold war where soviet policies were focused on seizing goods and factories in the form of restitutions. The United States prevented soviet policies with their rebuilding efforts to counter their growing strength within their zones by successfully merging political and economic interests.

The division caused by the cold war between the United States and Soviet Union went further than Germany entering the rest of Europe. This created two rival military alliances, one under the United States leadership and another under the Soviet Union. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation commonly known as NATO was created in 1949 which consisted of the United States and their allies in order to group most of the western European powers to protect from Soviet pressure and aggression (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). The NATO pact later legitimized some rearmament of west Germany in order to resist communism along with a continued presence of United States military in Germany and other member nations. As a counter act of the creation of NATO, the Soviet Union and its eastern European satellites created the Warsaw pact. U.S and Soviet troops were permanently positioned in Europe during the cold war. This divided Europe into two competing parties dominated by its own superpower. New regimes had to be made in Germany and Italy after the loss of fascist’s and Nazi leadership. Germany’s political reconstitution was delayed by the division of the nation by victorious Allies (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). France, Britain and the U.S merged their divided zones into the Federal Republic of Germany also known as West Germany. This gave a pathway for a new constitution which would stop Germany’s earlier Weimar Republic by making it against the law for extremist political movements to take place. Western Europe’s movement towards democracy continued in the 1970s. Spain and Portugal transitioned from their authoritarian constitutions towards a democratic and parliamentary one. This move from an authoritarian state to a democratic state motivated a movement towards a more welfare state. Times of war within the British government indicated a need for new programs to lower the effect of economic inequalities and to reward lower classes for their loyalties. In the mid-20th century the basis of a modern welfare state had been established in western Europe which was not only a new regime but also the extension of government programs. The united states added to its new legislation, under President Lyndon Johnson’s Great society programs which provided medical help packages for the needy and elderly (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). The state supported medical care by funding it and in Britain it became a core dealing in the new Labour program nationalising the basic health care system in the process. Along with the new legislation also included a host of social insurance measures such as unemployment insurance improvement. State ran medical institutions provided free health care to most of the British civilization from 1947 but fees were later introduced. Western European governments paid families which had children in order to counter the growing family units of the time. The welfare state became a new defining matter of the functions of the state. The new welfare state which was introduced cushioned citizens expenses and hardship rather than rearranging the overall of social structures (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994). The purchasing powers of their citizens were protected, the health care system improved generally, the relationship between state and citizens increased and it introduced new legislations which shaped the European life. On the other hand, the new welfare state which was introduced was expensive which increased the level of bureaucracies within Europe, better to channel tax to new functions. In the 1950s 25 percent of Frances gross national product went to welfare (Michael Adas, Peter N. Stearns and Stuart B. Schwartz, 1994).

The increase in a welfare state was parallel with the governments role in economic policy. Most European governments (post-war) nationalized a few sectors of industry outright with addition to the new offices for planning which were responsible for the development of multiyear economic projections, goal setting and how to fulfil them. This gave the European government the power to shape economic activity but not the power to run it. This made the European government more involved in economic growth, full employment and the means to avoid recession.The mode of production has influenced and changes political and socio-economic dynamics. The government took on a new role by becoming a welfare state after the discourse industrialization and imperialism caused.

Bibliography:

Adas, M., Stearns, P. N. and Schwartz, S. B. (1994) Turbulent passage : a global history of the twentieth century. New York, NY: HarperCollins

Castle, G. (2001) Postcolonial discourses : an anthology. Oxford. UK: Blackwell.